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HOW TO OBSERVE IN ARCHAEOLOGY

Suggestions for Travellers in the Near and Middle East

THE BRITISH MUSEUM

1920

CONTENTS

Preface. By Sir F. G. Keynon

PART I

Chapter I. INTRODUCTORY. By G. F. Hill
Chapter II. METHOD. By W. M. Flinders Petrie

LIST OF THE CHIEF BRITISH INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETIES CONCERNED WITH
THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST

LIST OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOINT COMMITTEE

PART II

INTRODUCTORY NOTE
Chapter I. FLINT IMPLEMENTS.
Chapter II. GREECE PROPER. By T. P. Droop
Chapter III. ASIA MINOR. By J. G. C. Anderson and J. L. Myres
Chapter IV. CYPRUS. By J. L. Myres
Chapter V. CENTRAL AND NORTH SYRIA. By D. G. Hogarth
Chapter VI. PALESTINE. By R. A. S. Macalister
Chapter VII. EGYPT. By W. M. Flinders Petrie
Chapter VIII. MESOPOTAMIA. By H. R. Hall

APPENDIX

SUMMARIES OF LAWS OF ANTIQUITIES

INDEX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES

Some Hieroglyphic Signs liable to be confused with each other
Flint Implements
Types of Greek Pottery, &c.
Greek Alphabets
Asia Minor Pottery types
Hittite Inscriptions, &c.
Bilingual (Greek and Cypriote) Dedication to Demeter and
Persephone from Curium
Syrian Pottery.
Syrian Weapons, &c.
West Semitic Alphabets
West Semitic Numerals
Palestinian Pottery types
Egyptian Pottery types
Mesopotamian Pottery, Seals, &c.
Cuneiform and other Scripts

PREFACE

This Handbook is intended primarily for the use of travellers in the
Near and Middle East who are interested in antiquities without being
already trained archaeologists. It is the outcome of a recommendation
made by the Archaeological Joint Committee, a body recently
established, on the initiative of the British Academy and at the
request of the Foreign Office, to focus the knowledge and experience
of British scholars and archaeologists and to place it at the
disposal of the Government when advice or information is needed upon
matters connected with archaeological science. The Committee is
composed of representatives of the principal English societies
connected with Archaeology, and it is hoped that it may be recognized
as the natural body of reference, both for Government Departments and
for the public, on matters connected with archaeological research in
foreign lands. It represents no one institution and no one interest.
Its purpose is to protect the interests of archaeological science, to
secure a sane and enlightened administration of antiquities in the
lands which are now being more fully opened to research, and to
promote the advance of knowledge in the spheres to which its
competence extends.

One means of serving this cause is to provide information for the
guidance of travellers in the lands of antiquity. Much knowledge is
lost because it comes in the way of those who do not know how to
profit by it or to record it. Accordingly, just as the Natural
History Museum has issued a series of pamphlets of advice to the
collectors of natural history specimens, so it has been thought that
a handbook of elementary information and advice may be found of
service by travellers with archaeological tastes; and the Trustees of
the British Museum have undertaken the publication of it. The
handbook has been prepared by a number of persons, whose competence
is beyond dispute; and the thanks of all who find it useful are due
to Mr. G. F. Hill (who has acted as general editor as well as part
author), Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie, Mr. D. G. Hogarth, Prof. J. L.
Myres, Mr. J. G. C. Anderson, Mr. J. P. Droop, Prof. R. A. S.
Macalister, Mr. H. R. Hall, Mr. A. J. B. Wace, Mr. 0. M. Dalton, Mr.
R. L. Hobson, Mr. E. J. Forsdyke, Mr. A. H. Smith, Mr. R. A. Smith,
Mr. A. B. Cook, and Prof. G. A. Cooke. Each contributor has been left
considerable latitude as to the method of treatment of the subject
allotted to him, and no attempt has been made to bring the various
sections into uniformity of pattern. Owing to Prof. Petrie's absence
in Egypt, it has not been possible to submit final proofs of his
contributions to him.

Suggestions for improvement in future editions will be welcomed, and
will no doubt be forthcoming as the result of experience. Meanwhile
it is hoped that this little book will accompany many travellers in
foreign lands, and that the labour expended on it will bear fruit in
the improved observation and record of archaeological data, in
establishing sound principles for the administration of antiquities,
and in enforcing proper methods of excavation and conservation. It
may also be found of service by those who study the results of
research as they appear in museums.

F. G. KENYON.

PART I

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

The hints which it is the object of this volume to convey are not
meant for experienced archaeologists. They are rather addressed to
those who, while anxious to observe and record the antiquities which
they may see on their travels, are likely, owing to lack of training,
to miss things that may be of importance, or, having observed them,
to bring home an imperfect record. It is hoped also that they may
catch the attention of some of those who are not interested in the
subject, but, coming into possession of antiquities, may unwittingly
do incalculable harm by allowing them to be destroyed or dispersed
before any record has been made.

Most, if not all, of the countries with which we are concerned, have
their Laws of Antiquities. It cannot be too strongly insisted that
those laws, even if they might be better than they are, should be
obeyed by the traveller. He should familiarize himself with their
main provisions, which are summarized in an Appendix. The traveller
who makes it his object to loot a country of its antiquities,
smuggling objects out of it and disguising the sources from which
they are obtained, does a distinct dis-service to archaeological
science. Although he may enrich collections, public or private, half
or more than half of the scientific value of his acquisitions is
destroyed by the fact that their provenance is kept secret or falsely
stated. Such action is equivalent to tearing out whole pages from a
history and destroying them for ever, for each antiquity, whatever it
may be, is in its way a part of history, whether of politics, arts,
or civilization. For the same reason anything like unauthorized
excavation, especially by unskilled hands, is gravely to be
deprecated. To dig an ancient site unskilfully or without keeping a
proper record is to obliterate part of a manuscript which no one else
will ever be able to read. The tendency of recent legislation is to
allow more generous terms in the matter of licences for export to
excavators and collectors, and the harsher provisions of some of the
existing laws are likely soon to be amended.

Before leaving home, the traveller will be well advised to make
inquiries at the museums or at the head-quarters of the
archaeological societies which concern themselves specially with
the places which he intends to visit. A list of these museums and
societies is appended to this section (p. 26). It is hardly necessary
to warn him that archaeological training cannot be acquired in a few
days, and that he will have to buy his experience in various ways;
but the more time he can devote to working through the collections in
this country, the more useful will be his observations abroad. He
will be able to learn what kind of antiquities it is especially
desirable to look for, not merely with the object of filling gaps in
the public collections, but for the advancement of archaeological
knowledge in general.

The object of archaeological travel and excavation is not to collect
antiquities so that they may be arranged according to the existing
catalogues of museums, but to collect fresh information to amplify
and correct what we now know, to make our knowledge of the past more
complete and useful.

On arrival in the country of his choice, he is recommended to
continue at the National Museum the study, which we suppose he has
already begun in the museums at home, of the kind of antiquities
which he is likely to come across. But he should also take an early
opportunity of getting into touch with the local British
Archaeological School or other similar institution, where he will
receive advice what to look for and where and how to look, and
assistance in procuring suitable equipment. Thus the traveller who
starts from Athens or Jerusalem should apply at the British School of
Archaeology. He may there, it he desires, receive instruction in any
of the methods described in Chapter II, in which a little practical
demonstration is worth pages of print, and will be given all possible
assistance in obtaining such articles of equipment as are available
on the spot. (Photographic supplies and all scientific instruments
should be brought out from England.) The best maps of the district
will also be accessible for examination (but the traveller is
recommended to make inquiries in this respect before leaving
England); the libraries will provide the literature dealing with the
routes he proposes to take; and such a collection as the type-series
of pottery and the Finlay collection of prehistoric antiquities at
the British School at Athens may be useful to supplement his previous
studies at museums, and enable him to observe with intelligence the
potsherds, &c., that he may find on an ancient site. In return, he
will be expected to report his results either to the School or to
some other scientific society or museum at home. It should be
unnecessary to remind him that the conditions of the law of the land
relating to the reporting of discoveries to the competent authorities
should be strictly observed. Such authorities should also be informed
of any destruction or removal of monuments which may be noticed.

Another matter which should not be neglected is the obtaining
of such licences as may be required by law for the acquisition in the
country or export therefrom of objects of antiquity. Advice on this
matter can be obtained at the local School or National Museum.

It is possible that the traveller will begin his journey at a point
other than the capital. Inquiries should be made at the London head-
quarters of the Schools concerning residents at such places who may
be able to give advice to intending travellers.

The traveller will doubtless bring back with him such antiquities as
he is permitted to export. A word of general advice on this matter
may not be out of place here. The essential value of antiquities,
apart from their purely artistic interest, lies in the circumstances
in which they are found. The inexperienced traveller is apt to pick
up a number of objects haphazard, without accurately noting their
find-spots, and even, getting tired of them, as a child of flowers
that he has picked, to discard them a mile or two away. If the first
act is a blunder, the second is a crime; it is better to leave them
lying in place. For the same reason, it is highly desirable that
objects found together (e.g. the contents of a tomb) should as far as
possible be kept together, or at least that accurate record of the
whole group should be made, since the archaeological value of a find
may depend on a single object, apparently of small importance.
Nothing, for instance, is more common, or more distressing to the
numismatist, than the division of a hoard of coins among various
persons before they have been examined by an expert. If they must be
divided, good impressions should at least be made by one of the
methods described in Chapter II, and, if the coins are of gold or
silver, the weights should be noted. This should be done even if the
coins, to the inexperienced eye, appear to be all alike. The
knowledge that any coin from a hoard may be of greater value than a
similar coin found singly may induce finders to report such finds
before dispersing them. What applies to coins is equally applicable,
in various ways, to all classes of antiquities.

It is assumed that the primary object of the traveller is not
speculation in the pecuniary value of the antiquities that he may
acquire, although he may be not unreasonably inclined to recover some
of his expenses by disposing of objects which do not appeal to him.
Should that be so, although the authorities of public museums
obviously cannot be agents or valuers in such transactions between
the owner and private collectors, they are as obviously willing to
consider offers which are made to their museums in the first instance
and, if the objects are not required by them, to advise the owner in
what quarter he may be likely to meet with a purchaser.

CHAPTER II

METHOD

1. Outfit.

Each traveller will require to provide for his special interests; but
for any archaeological work the following things are desirable. Note-
books of squared paper. Drawing-blocks of blue-squared paper. Paper
for wet squeezes, and for dry squeezes. Brush for wet squeezes (spoke
brush). One or two so-metre tapes. A few bamboo gardening canes for
markers in planning. Divide one in inches or centimetres for
measuring buildings. A steel rod, 3 ft. x 1 inch for probing. Field-
glass, or low-power telescope. Prismatic compass with card partly
black, to see at night. Large and small celluloid protractors for
plotting angles on plans. Plotting-scale, tenths of inches and
millimetres. Maps of the district, the best available. Aneroid
barometer, if collecting flints; small size; can be tested by
observing in a tall lift, or by putting in a tumbler and pressing the
hand air-tight over the mouth. The zero error, or absolute values,
are not wanted for levelling, only delicacy in small variations.
Magnifiers, a few pocket size; will also serve for presents.
Indelible pencils, pens, and ink in strong corked pocket bottle.
Reservoir pens dry up too much in some climates. China ink for
permanent marking. Strips of adhesive paper, about a inch and a
inches wide, to put round objects for labelling. Strong steel pliers,
wire-cutting. A few pocket-knives will serve for presents. It is best
to carry money in a little bag or screw of paper, loose in the jacket
pocket, it in a risky district. It can then be dropped on any alarm
and picked up afterwards.

Photographic.[1]
In the selection of a camera much will depend upon the nature of the
work to be undertaken, the conditions of travel, and the climate to
which the camera will be exposed. For accurate work a stand camera is
always to be preferred to one of the hand variety, and care should be
taken to choose an instrument that is strongly made and of simple
construction. The essentials of a good stand camera are that it shall
be rigid, possess a rising and falling front, a swing back, and
bellows which will be capable of extension to fully double the focal
length of the lens to be used with it.

[1]Prof. Petrie is not responsible for this section, which is due to
the kind assistance of some professional photographers.-ED.

The rising and falling front gives a power of modifying the field of
view in a vertical direction. The swing back preserves the
verticality of architectural subjects. In some cases, when used with
the pivots vertical, it is a help in focussing the subject. The
possible extension of the distance between the lens stop and the
ground glass to twice the focal length (which is as a rule the
distance between the same points, when a distant object is in focus)
enables a small subject to be reproduced in natural size.

For work abroad where extremes of temperature or excessive variations
have to be contended with, a special tropical camera is supplied by
most of the leading makers. Its well-seasoned hard wood and metal-
bound joints render it suitable for hard wear, and reduce the risk of
leakage through warping or shrinkage. The tripod stand should be of
the so-called threefold variety, with sliding legs which can be
adapted to broken ground. If a loose screw is used for attaching the
camera to the stand, a spare screw should be kept in reserve. It is
important that this stand should be strongly made, and light patterns
subject to undue vibrations in the wind should be discarded. For
photographing small objects in the studio, a small table is more
convenient than a tripod support. If the camera will not sit flat on
the table, a bed can easily be designed for it. Better work will be
done if this is prepared in advance than if an improvised support is
used. As regards the size of the outfit, quarter-plate (3 1/4 x 4 1/4
inches) will usually be found to be large enough for the traveller.
For anything in the nature of studio work in a museum or in connexion
with an excavation a half-plate camera (6 1/2 x 4 3/4 inches) is more
satisfactory. Where a hand camera is preferred it should be one
capable of adjustment of focus, and here again, strength and
simplicity should be looked for. It should be provided with effective
tripod legs, for studied exposures. Plates or flat films are
preferable to roll fills [2] which are difficult to manipulate away
from home. Flat films are less bulky and less breakable than glass,
and can be sent by post. They are supplied by the makers in packs of
12 for daylight loading into a film-pack adapter, which must be
provided to take the place of the ordinary dark slides for glass
plates. The lens should be a modern anastigmatic by a good maker. A
focal length of about six inches will be best for a quarter-plate
camera. A bad lens makes success impossible even by accident.

[2] Transcriber's note: 'fills' in the original text is possibly a
misprint for 'films'.

The stops will probably be of the Iris pattern, incorporated in the
lens and so not likely to be lost, as often happens with loose stops.

A few words on the theory and use of the stops and on the F-notation
may be of service. The speed of a photographic lens depends on the
ratio of the effective aperture to the focal length. Thus any two
lenses used at apertures of F/8, that is at apertures having
diameters one-eighth of their respective focal lengths, should be of
the same speed, though both lenses and apertures may be very
different. In a given lens, the speed varies directly with the area
of the aperture admitting the light, that is with the square of the
diameter of the aperture. The series of stops usually employed is
calculated so that each aperture is half the area of the preceding.
Stated in terms of the focal length they are known as F/5.6, F/8,
F/11.3, F/16, F/22.6, F/32, &c. Since the squares of those numbers,
31.4, 64, 127.7, 256, 510.7, 1024 are approximately each twice the
preceding number of the series, the apertures, F(ocal length),
divided by the successive numbers as denominators, are each half the
area of the preceding and require twice the exposure, F/16 requires
twice the 'exposure of F/11.3, and four times that of F/8, and so
throughout the scale.

Stops are used to regulate either 'depth of focus' or length of
exposure. The 'depth of focus' means the distance before and behind
the point in theoretically accurate focus, at which objects are
sufficiently focussed, for the purpose the photographer has in view.
This length is greatest when only the central portion of the lens is
in use. It is greatest with a pinhole, and least with a full
aperture. Hence a small stop is required if the picture is to include
near and far objects, while a large aperture may be used if all the
subject is far enough away to be in clear focus--say more than 25
feet--or if it is a flat surface. The small stop is also required when
the rising front or the swing back is in use. The power of regulating
the time of exposure is convenient for shortening long exposures in
dark interiors, or for lengthening inconveniently short exposures in
a bright light.

In practice it will be best to become familiar with the use of about
three stops, say the full aperture (perhaps F/5.6 or F/8), F/16, and
F/32.

For judging long exposures, the use of an actinometer (issued in many
inexpensive forms) is helpful.

A telephoto attachment increases the photographer's power of
rendering distant details on a large scale. The results are greatly
superior to enlargements of a small plate. It is, however, useless in
a wind, unless the camera is specially supported, and is otherwise
rather tricky to use. The traveller is strongly advised to master its
management at home. It should be adjusted by the maker to the camera
for which it is intended.

Unless a photographer's dark room can be had the developing of the
bulk is best left until the return home, but tests should be made to
see that the exposures are correct. A piece of ruby fabric or ruby
paper tied over an electric light will give a safe light after dark,
and 'Scalol' or some such one-solution developer which requires
merely the addition of water, will give all that is needed for
developing. For fixing use 4 oz. hypo to a pint of water.

In warm climates, use cold water. If it is not cool enough, the
gelatine of the negatives may give trouble. In that case, get colder
water, and use an alum bath. If water is precious, plates can be
sufficiently washed by moving them forward in succession, through
half-dozen soup plates filled with water.

If habitual use is not made of tabloid developers, &c., it is
advisable to have some in reserve, for use in the case of broken
bottles and spilt solutions.

Useful notes and maxims.

An over-exposed plate gives no dark shadows in the print.

An under-exposed plate gives no high lights. When in doubt, choose
the risk of over-exposure.

To test the safety of your camera--Half draw the shutter, and expose
part of the plate in the camera, in the sunshine, without uncapping
the lens, and develop.

To test the safety of your red light--Expose a plate, divide it into
two, develop half in the dark, and half for the same time, with the
same solution by the light you are testing, and compare the results.
This test is worth making, as photographers are apt to give
themselves much discomfort from exaggerated caution.

2. Itinerary.

Where there are efficient maps the only need is to mark in the
position of any antiquities, by cross-bearings to clear points, with
the compass, drawn in with a sharp pencil. Where the maps are too
small, or deficient, a continuous register of time should be made,
noting the minute of starting and of stopping; this over known
distances will serve to give the value over the unknown. Note whether
mounted or walking, and the compass bearing of the track; also the
bearings of known points around, whenever stopping. Without any known
bearings pacing and compass used carefully may go over the roughest
ground without five per cent. error in the day.

It is better when on unknown ground to plot a map as you go, so that
no misunderstanding of notes can arise after. If a squared block
cannot be used, at least draw the bearings and distances roughly,
writing in the amounts. This should be plotted up accurately in the
evening. A photograph may be unintelligible later in its detail. It
is best where known features, a temple, tombs, &c., are in a view, to
sketch the outline when photographing, and write in the details, so
as to give a key to the photograph. Inquire about antiquities
whenever stopping. When camping, villagers usually come up to see who
it is; then tell them the directions of the places around. They will
ask how you know; show them the map, and they are puzzled; talk over
all the names a few miles round, and then anything notable in the
district may be remarked, and inquiries made. Several men together
help each other to remember, and bring out more remarks. Sometimes an
intelligent man will describe all the antiquities he knows in the
district: this should be followed closely on the map, and
difficulties resolved at once, so as to get a clear record noted.

Of course, enormous exaggerations are met with, and not one report in
ten will prove to be anything. Tracking up the source of bought
antiquities is one of the best methods, and the one by which
Naukratis was found.

If travelling by camel, it is practicable to diverge widely on foot,
if objects are looked for well ahead. A foot track diverging 4.5
degrees, and then converging likewise, will easily keep in touch with
a baggage camel. Fix on the camping-place in the morning, and let
every one know of it, so that if accidentally parted all can rejoin
by night.

3. Recording.

Buildings or ruins.
Fix position by bearings to mapped points; also note bearings of any
prominent feature near by, which may serve for finding the position
again. Sketch a plan, always north up in the book, note bearing of
main wall, and then measure with bamboo rod all original dimensions,
with some diagonals to fix angles; do not forget the thickness of the
walls. It is best for a long length to stretch a tape, pegged down by
the ring, and pulled tight by hand: read off all positions of doors,
windows, cross-walls, &c., on one long length, and not as separate
short lengths. If possible plot the measures on squared paper as you
go, and then any errors or omissions will be checked at once. 'E. and
O.E.' has no place in a plan.

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