The Life of Hugo Grotius written by Charles Butler
C >>
Charles Butler >> The Life of Hugo Grotius
Pages:
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 | 8 |
9 |
10 |
11 |
12 |
13 |
14
[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
Grotius, while a prisoner in the Castle of Louvestein, had written, in
the Dutch language, "A treatise on the Truth of the Christian Religion."
He afterwards enlarged it, and translated it, so enlarged, into Latin.
It was universally read and admired. French, German, English, modern
Greek, Persic, and even Turkish versions of it have been made: it was
equally approved by Catholics and Protestants.
[Sidenote: De Veritate Religionis Christianae.]
It was invidiously objected, that he did not attempt to prove, or even
mention, the Trinity, and some other gospel mysteries: he replied,
satisfactorily in our opinion, that a discussion of any particular tenet
of the Christian religion did not fall within the scope of his work. In
this respect, he was afterwards imitated by _Abadie_ and _Houteville_,
two of the most eminent apologists of Christianity. The latter expresses
himself of the work of Grotius in the following terms:
"Grotius's work is the first, in which we find the characteristics
of just reasoning, accuracy, and strength: he is extremely concise;
but even this brevity will please us, when we find his work
comprehends so many things, without confounding them or lessening
their evidence or force. It is no wonder that the book should be
translated into so many languages."
The best edition of it is that published by Le Clerc,[036] in 1709 at
Amsterdam, in 8vo. To this edition, Le Clerc has added a curious
_dissertation_ on _religious indifference_. He presumes that the
supposed indifference is persuaded of the authenticity of the New
Testament:--He then (says Le Clerc) must ascertain,--
1. Which are the denominations of religionists which avow their
belief of it:
2. Which of these are most worthy of the name of Christians:
3. And which profess the Christian religion in most purity and with
least extraneous alloy:
4. He will find, that all Christians agree in the fundamental
articles of faith:
5. That all these articles are clearly expressed in the New
Testament:
6. That no tenet should be believed to be of faith, unless the New
Testament contains it.
7. That the providence of God is admirable in the preservation of
these tenets, amidst the confused multitude of religious opinions,
which have prevailed in the world:
8. That this confusion was foreseen by God:
9. That he permitted it as a consequence of his gift of free-will
to man:
10. That the inquirer should aggregate himself to that religious
communion, which receives the New Testament as its only rule of
faith, and does not persecute others:
11. That episcopacy without tyranny is the most antient form of
ecclesiastical government, and most to be desired; but that it is
not essential to a Christian church:
12. That these were the opinions of Grotius:
13. Finally, that it is greatly to be desired that a belief of no
dogma, not explicitly propounded in the New Testament, should be
required.
Such is the religious system propounded by Le Clerc.--Does any religious
communion really profess it?--Many Protestant churches declare, that the
Bible, and the Bible only, contains their creed: but, do they not all
mean by this--the Bible, as it is explained by the Articles, the
Formulary, or the Confession received by their church?
X. 4.
_Grotius's Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum circa sacra_.--And,
_Commentatio ad loca quaedam Novi Testamenti, quae de Antichristo agunt,
aut agere putantur_.
Nothing in the life of Grotius places him in a more amiable or
respectable point of view, than his constant attempts to put Catholics
and Protestants into good humour with each other, and to put both into
good humour among themselves.
[Sidenote: X. 4. His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum. &c.]
We have mentioned the _pacific decree of the States of Holland_, which
ordered the contending communions to tolerate each other. Grotius is
supposed to have framed this wise decree. The Contra-remonstrants
attacked it: Grotius reprinted it, with a collection of proofs and
authorities.
It gave rise to a controversy on the nice question, respecting the
authority of the temporal power to interfere in the ecclesiastical
concerns of the state. Grotius adopted, upon this point, the sentiments
of what is termed in England the Low Church: he seems to have pushed
them to their utmost bearings. With these sentiments, he published his
treatise _de Imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra_. It was disliked
by King James and his bishops: Grotius, in their opinion, gave too much
authority, in sacred things, to the secular power.
On the work of Grotius, respecting _Anti-christ_, we prefer transcribing
Burigni's sentiments to delivering our own.
"This deep study of the Holy Scriptures led Grotius to examine a
question, which made much noise at that time. Some Protestant
synods had ventured to decide that _the Pope was Antichrist_; and
this extravagance, gravely delivered by the ministers, was
regarded by the zealous schismatics, as a fundamental truth.
Grotius undertook to overturn such an absurd opinion, that stirred
up an irreconcileable enmity between the Roman Catholics and the
Protestants; and, of consequence, was a very great obstacle to
their re-union, which was the sole object of his desires. He
entered therefore upon the consideration of the passages of
Scripture relating to Antichrist, and employed his Sundays in it.
[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
"It was this work, that raised him up most enemies. We see by the
letters he wrote to his brother, that his best friends were afraid
lest they should be suspected of having some hand in the
publication of the books, in which he treated of Antichrist. 'If
you are afraid of incurring ill will, (he writes thus to his
brother), you may easily find people that are far from a factious
spirit, who will take care of the impression. Nothing has incensed
princes against those, who separated from the church of Rome, more
than the injurious names, with which the Protestants load their
adversaries; and nothing is a greater hindrance to that re-union,
which we are all obliged to labour after, in consequence of
Christ's precept and the profession we make of our faith in the
creed. Perhaps the Turk, who threatens Italy, will force us to it.
In order to arrive at it, we must first remove whatever obstructs a
mutual quiet hearing. I hope I shall find assistance in this pious
design. I shall not cease to labour in it, and shall rejoice to die
employed in so good a work.'
[Sidenote: His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum, &c.]
"Reigersberg, Blaeu, Vossius himself, however much devoted to
Grotius, beheld with concern the printing of this book, because
they did not doubt but it would increase the number of his enemies.
Grotius informs his brother, of the uneasiness which Vossius gave
him on this subject. 'Among those, who wish this work destroyed,'
says he, 'I am astonished and grieved to see Vossius. Whence could
he have this idea? I imagine somebody has told him, that it would
injure the fortune of his children, if he approved of such books;
and that, on the contrary, he would find favour by hurting me. We
must therefore have recourse to Corcellius or Corvinus.' He
elsewhere complains of the too great timidity of this old friend,
who at bottom approved of Grotius's sentiments, but durst not own
them publicly, because he was not so independent as Grotius.
[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
"The treatise on Anti-christ made much noise among all the declared
enemies of the Romish church. Michael Gettichius wrote to Ruarus,
that he had only glanced over Grotius's book on Antichrist; but as
far as he could judge by the first reading, that learned man, who
was possessed of such an excellent genius, and such singular
erudition, had no other intention than to engage the learned in a
further inquiry concerning Antichrist; and to determine them to
attack with greater strength, the Romish Antichrist; or, if he
wrote seriously, he wanted to cut out a path for going over,
without dishonour, to the Papists. Ruarus answers this letter Dec.
16, 1642, from Dantzic. 'I have always (he says) looked on Grotius
as a very honest and at the same time a very learned man. I am
persuaded that love of peace engaged him in this work. I don't deny
but he has gone too far; the love of antiquity perhaps seduced him:
no Remonstrant, that I know of, has as yet answered him; but he has
been confuted by some learned Calvinists, particularly Desmonets,
minister of Bois le duc, who has written against him with much
bitterness.'
"Grotius's work was printed in 1640, with this title: _Commentatio
ad loca quaedam Novi Testamenti, quae de Antichristo agunt aut agere
putantur:--Expedenda eruditis."_[037]
X.5.
_His Commentary on the Scriptures._
[Sidenote: X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.]
The theological works of Grotius are comprised in four volumes folio:
the three first contain his Commentary, and Notes upon the Scriptures.
On their merit, both Catholics and Protestants considerably differ. All
allow that an abundance of sacred and profane learning is displayed in
them; and that Grotius, by his references to the writings of the Rabbis,
and his remarks upon the idiom of the sacred writings, has happily
elucidated a multitude of passages in the text. He uniformly adopts the
literal and obvious signification of the language used by the holy
penmen. In explaining the predictions of the prophets, he maintains that
they referred to events anterior to the coming of Christ, and were
accomplished in these; so that the natural and obvious sense of the
words and phrases, in which they were delivered, does not terminate in
Christ; yet, that in some of the predictions, those particularly, which
the writers of the New Testament apply to Christ, there is, _besides_
the literal and obvious signification, a hidden and mysterious sense,
which lies concealed under the external mark of certain _persons_,
certain _events_, and certain _actions_, which are representative of the
person, the ministry, the sufferings, and the merits of the Son of God.
[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
It has been objected, that this system leads to Socinianism, and even
beyond it. All Catholic, and several episcopalian Protestant divines
object to it; they generally contend, that the sacred writings ought
always to be understood in that sense _only_, which has been attributed
to them, by the early fathers.--Against this system, Dr. Whitby
published his celebrated work "Concerning the Interpretation of
Scripture after the manner of the Fathers."[038]
[Sidenote: X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.]
The system of Grotius was defended, to a certain extent, by _Father
Simon_, the oratorian, the father of the modern biblical school. Against
both Simon and Grotius, Bossuet wielded his powerful lance,--in his
"Pastoral Instruction on the Works of Father Simon," and his
"Dissertations upon Grotius." In these works he says that, during thirty
years,
"Grotius searched for truth in good faith, and at last was so near
it, that it is wonderful that he did not take the last step, to
which God called him. Shocked at Calvin's harsh doctrines, he
embraced Arminianism; then, abandoned it. More a lawyer than a
theologian, more a polite scholar than a philosopher, he throws the
doctrine of the immortality of the soul into obscurity. He
endeavours to weaken and steal from the church, her most powerful
proofs of the divinity of the Son of God, and strives to darken the
prophecies, which announce the arrival of the Messiah."
Bossuet proceeds to particularize some of the principal errors of
Grotius: Le Clerc replied to the prelate's criticism, by his _Sentimens
de quelques Theologiens de la Hollande_.--Grotius had also an able
advocate in Father Simon. His defence of Grotius against the charge of
_semi-Pelagianism_, in the _Bibliotheque de Sainjore_,[039] appears to
be satisfactory. He cites the note of Grotius, on the Acts of the
Apostles, (the celebrated ch. xiii. ver. 38), in which he says expressly
that he does not exclude preventive grace: this the semi-Pelagians
denied altogether. But in his defence of Grotius against the charge of
_Socinianism_, he is not equally successful. Bossuet sent his _Pastoral
Instruction_, and _Dissertations upon Grotius_, to the bishop of
Frejus, afterward Cardinal de Fleury: he accompanied them by a letter,
which closes with these remarkable words:
"The spirit of incredulity gains ground in the world every day: you
have often heard me make this remark. It is now worse than ever, as
the Gospel itself is used for the corruption of religion. I thank
God that at my age he blesses me with sufficient strength to resist
the torrent."
[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621--1634.]
Dom. Calmet[040] calls Grotius,
"one of the most able and moderate Protestant writers: one who
spreads throughout his notes a pleasing profusion of profane
literature, which causes his works to be sought for and read by
those, who have taste for that kind of literature. His high
reputation, great erudition, and rare modesty," says Dom. Calmet,
"render it easy for him to insinuate his particular sentiments
respecting the divinity of Christ, against which, his readers
should be guarded."
X.6.
_Some other Works of Grotius_.
1. The first which we shall mention is his history of the _Goths,
Vandals, and Lombards_, written in the Latin language, and accompanied
by learned dissertations. He composed it, as a testimony of his
gratitude to the Swedes, by doing honour to their gothic ancestors. The
preface has always been admired, for its erudition and sound criticism.
But the Belgic friends of Grotius accused him of elevating the Swedes at
their expense.
[Sidenote: X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.]
2. A more important work consists of his _Annals, and History of the
United Provinces_. The Annals begin with the year 1588, when Prince
Maurice had the greatest influence in the affairs of the United
Provinces; and concludes with the truce of twelve years, signed between
them and Spain. The impartiality, with which these works are written,
has been praised by every writer.
It is to be lamented that Grotius professed to imitate, both in his
Annals and History, the style of Tacitus. Expressed by his own pen, the
style of Tacitus is energetic, picturesque, and pleasing; but it is
impossible to deny its frequent abruptness and obscurity. Generally
speaking, an imitation of what is defective, contains a larger share,
than the original, of its distinctive defect. It should however be
added, that Grotius's own style is short, sententious and broken; and
possesses nothing of the meliflous ease of the ultramontane Latinists;
or of our Milton or Buchanan. None of the works of Grotius, which we
have mentioned in this Article, were published till after his decease.
3. It remains to notice the _Letters of Grotius_, published at Amsterdam
in one volume folio, in 1687.--A multitude of his unpublished letters is
said to exist in different public and private libraries.
[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
His published letters are an invaluable treasure: they abound with wise
maxims of sound policy, and curious discussions on points arising on
Roman or Belgic jurisprudence. Many points of sacred and profane
learning, and particularly of the civil and canon law, are treated in
them with equal learning and taste. For the perfect understanding of
them, the letters of the correspondents of Grotius should be perused:
they are principally to be found, in the _Praestantium et Eruditorum
Virorum Epistolae Ecclesiasticae et Theologicae_, published at Amsterdam in
1684. A critical account of the Letters of Grotius, executed with great
taste and judgment, is inserted in the first volume of the _Bibliotheque
Universelle et Historique_.[041]
[Sidenote: X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.]
It is acknowledged that the letters of Grotius, are written in the
finest latinity, and contain much valuable information; but the point,
the sprightliness, the genius, the vivid descriptions of men and
things, which are so profusely scattered over the letters of Erasmus,
are seldom discoverable in those of Grotius. A man of learning would
have been gratified beyond measure, by the profound conversations of
Grotius and Father Petau: but what a treat must it have been, to have
assisted with one, two, or three good listeners, at the conversations
between Erasmus and Sir Thomas More!
CHAPTER. XI.
GROTIUS.--AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN TO THE COURT OF
FRANCE.
1634--1645.
The embassy of Grotius is connected with an important period in the
history of the War of Thirty years.
This celebrated war was principally caused by the religious disputes of
the sixteenth century. Very soon after Luther's first attack on the See
of Rome, the Reformation was established in Saxony, Livonia, Prussia,
and Hesse-cassell; in many imperial towns; in Friezland and Holland; in
several of the Swiss Cantons; in Pomerania, Mecklenburgh, Anhalt;
Sweden, Denmark, Norway; England, and Scotland. Its progress in Germany
is particularly connected with the subject of these pages.
[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius in the Court of France.]
At the diet of Augsburgh, in 1530, the Protestant princes of Germany
delivered to the emperor their Confession of Faith; they afterwards, at
Smalcald, entered into an offensive and defensive league against the
emperor. Being sensible that they were unable to resist him, they
engaged the French monarch in their cause. At first, the emperor was
victorious; but a new league was formed. France then took a more active
part in favour of the confederates, and the contest ended in the peace
of Passau, in 1552, there the two parties, for the first time, treated
as equals, and the free exercise of the Lutheran religion was allowed.
Things remained quiet during the reigns of Ferdinand the First and
Maximilian the Second; but, in consequence of the disputes, which arose
on the succession to the dutchies of Cleves and Juliers, the religious
differences broke out with fresh animosity:--the Protestant princes
formed a confederacy called the _Evangelical Union_, and placed, at its
head, the Elector Palatine; the Catholics formed a confederacy called
the _Catholic League_, and placed, at its head, the Duke of Bavaria. In
the year 1618, they burst into open war; every state in Europe, and even
the Ottoman princes, at one time or other, took a part in it. France was
the soul of the Protestant cause; she assisted it with her armies, and
her subsidies:--it may be truly said, that, if there be a Protestant
state from the Vistula to the Rhine, or a Mahometan, state between the
Danube and the Mediterranean, its existence is owing to the Bourbon
monarchs. From the period of its duration, it has been called the WAR
OF THIRTY YEARS: it is divided, by its _Palatine, Danish, Swedish,_ and
_French_ periods.
[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
1. Frederick, the fifth _Elector Palatine_ of that name, being elected
King of Bohemia, by the states of that kingdom, made war on the emperor
Ferdinand the Second. Being defeated in 1620, at the battle of Prague,
and abandoned by his allies, he was driven from Bohemia, and deprived of
his other states.
2. Christian the Fourth of _Denmark_, then placed himself at the head of
the confederacy against the emperor; but, having in 1626, lost the
battle of Lutter, in which Tilly commanded the Austrian forces; he
signed, three years after that event, a separate peace with the emperor.
In the following year, Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, was placed at
the head of the confederacy. Their cause appeared desperate: Walstein,
the Austrian general, had been uniformly successful, and almost the
whole of Germany had submitted to the emperor: but the Austrians soon
experienced a severe reverse of fortune.
[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
3. Lewis XIII filled at that time, the throne of France; his councils
were guided by Cardinal Richelieu, one of the ablest statesmen that has
appeared upon the theatre of the world. Vast, but provident in his
designs; daring, but considerate in his operations; capable of the
largest views and the most minute attentions; he formed three immense
projects, and succeeded in all.
"When your Majesty," he thus addresses the monarch in his celebrated
_Testament Politique_, "resolved at the same time to admit me into your
councils, and to give me a great portion of your confidence, I can say
with truth that the Hugonots divided the state with you; that the great,
conducted themselves, as if they were not your subjects, and the
governors of the provinces, as if they were the sovereigns of them; and
that France was contemned by her foreign allies."
To reduce the Hugonots, to lower the nobility, to elevate France to be
the preponderating power in Europe, were the three objects, which the
Cardinal proposed to himself. In each, he had difficulties to encounter,
which extraordinary talents only could surmount. By a strict
administration of justice, and severely punishing, without respect to
rank or connections, those, who engaged in treasonable practices, he
completely subdued the towering spirit of the nobility; by victorious
armies and a vigorous dispensation of the laws, he reduced the Hugonots;
and, by calling forth all the energies of his country, and arraying
half the Continent against Austria and Spain, he gave to France an
almost irresistible ascendant in the concerns of Europe.
[Sidenote: CHAP. XI 1634-1645.]
To the last only of these three designs our present subject leads us.
_Sweden_ had long been engaged in a war against Denmark, and highly
dissatisfied with Austria. By the persuasion of Richelieu, she made
peace with the Danes, and entered into an offensive and defensive
alliance with France. In consequence of it, Gustavus Adolphus was placed
at the head of the Protestant confederacy: a large army of Swedes
entered Germany; Gustavus was invested with the command of the
confederate forces, and his brilliant campaigns turned the tide of
success in their favour. At Lutzen he obtained a complete victory, but
lost his life.
[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
After the death of Gustavus, the States assembled, and the Mareschal of
the Diet proposed, that the celebrated Christina, the only child of
Gustavus, then an infant of very tender years, should be crowned: the
Mareschal carried her in his arms into the midst of the assembly. On
observing her, all were struck with her likeness to her father. "Yes!"
they cried, "it is she herself! she has the eyes, the nose and the
forehead of Gustavus! We will have her for our queen!" She was
immediately seated on the throne, and proclaimed queen. The regency of
the kingdom, during the minority of Christina, was conferred on the
Chancellor Oxenstiern: he had been the confidential minister and friend
of Gustavus, and shewed through life that he deserved that confidence,
by his wisdom, eminent talents, and spotless integrity. Both the monarch
and his minister entertained a high opinion of the abilities and virtue
of Grotius: His treatise _De Jure Belli et Pacis_ was found, after the
death of Gustavus, in the royal tent.
4. Not long after the disastrous victory of the Swedes at Lutzen, the
Austrian and confederate armies conflicted at Nordlingen, in one of the
most obstinate and bloody battles recorded in history: the confederates
were completely defeated. The blame was thrown on the Swedes; they were
deserted by almost all their Protestant allies, and the weight of the
war devolved almost entirely upon the Swedes and _the French_. Till this
time, they had acted and negociated on an equality: the loss of this
battle made the Swedes dependent upon France, and the haughty genius of
Richelieu made them severely feel it.
[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
The first object of Oxenstiern was to renew the treaty with France: a
skilful negociator on the part of Sweden was necessary. Oxenstiern
fixed his eye upon Grotius: the penetrating minister had several
conversations with him. The embassy to France was certainly the most
important commission, with which a minister from Sweden could be
charged: Oxenstiern's appointment of Grotius to it, demonstrated the
minister's high opinion of him. Some time in July 1634, he declared
Grotius councillor to the Queen of Sweden, and her ambassador to the
court of France. Grotius made his public entry into Paris on Friday the
2d of March 1635. Nothing of the customary ceremonial or compliment was
omitted in his regard, by the court of France.
Pages:
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 | 8 |
9 |
10 |
11 |
12 |
13 |
14