The Life of Hugo Grotius written by Charles Butler
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Charles Butler >> The Life of Hugo Grotius
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CICERO.
Tel on voit cet oiseau, qui porte le tonnere,
Blesse par un serpent elance de la terre;
Il s'envole, il entraine au sejour azure
L'ennemi tortueux dont il est entoure.
Le sang tombe des airs: il dechire, il devore
Le reptile acharne, qui le combat encore;
Il le perce, il le tient sous ses ongles vainqeurs,
Par cent coups redoubles il venge ses douleurs;
Le Monstre en expirant, se debat, se replie;
Il exhale en poison le reste de sa vie;
Et l'aigle tout sanglant, fier et victorieux,
Le rejette en fureur, et plane au haut des cieux.
VOLTAIRE.
[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.]
About the year 1608, Grotius published his celebrated work _Mare
Liberum_, to assert in it against the English, the general freedom of
the sea. The controversy arose upon the claim of Great Britain to enjoy
the dominion of the British seas, in the most extensive sense of those
words, both as to the right of navigating them, and the right of fishing
within them. Against this claim, Grotius attempted to shew that the sea
was, from its nature, insusceptible of exclusive right; and that, if it
were susceptible of it, England did not prove her title to it. Selden,
in opposition to Grotius, asserted the British claim, by his treatise
_Mare Clausam_,--a noble exertion of a vigorous mind, fraught with
profound and extensive erudition. It is pleasing to add, that he treats
Grotius with the respect due to his learning and character. Selden's
treatise was thought of so much importance to his cause, that a copy of
it was directed to be deposited in the British Admiralty. Grotius was
highly pleased with the respect, which was shewn to him by Selden.
On Selden's _Mare Clausum_ he composed the following epigram:--
Ipsum compedibus qui vinxerat Ennegisaeum,
Est Greca Xerxes multus in historia:
Lucullum Latii Xerxem dixere togatum;
Seldenus Xerxes ecce Britannus erit.
[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610]
The States General were gratified by his work; but at that time it was
so much their interest to preserve the strictest amity with England,
that they discountenanced any further advocation of their claim.[012]
The year after his publication of his "Treatise on the Freedom of the
Sea," Grotius printed his work on the "_Antiquity of the Batavian
Republic_." He gives in it an account of the antient _Batavians;_ he
professes to shew that they were the allies, not the subjects of the
Romans; that, after a period of anarchy, during which little is known of
their history, they became subjects of the Counts of Holland; that these
were not vassals of the empire, but independent princes; and, strictly
speaking, elected by the people, although, in the election of them,
great regard was always shewn to the hereditary line: that they were
bound to conform to the laws of the state; and always required, before
their election, to swear to the observance of the constitution; that the
taxes were always imposed by the States, and that Philip the Second had
occasioned the grand war, by repeated infractions of the public and
private right of the people of the United Provinces.
[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.]
The States of Holland were highly pleased with this work; they voted
thanks to its author, and accompanied them with a present. It is
considered that his partiality to his country led him to advance some
positions favourable to its antient independence, which his proofs did
not justify.
For the use of _Du Maurier_, the French ambassador to the States
General, Grotius published, about this time, his "Directions for a
Course of general Study," _De omni genere studiorum recte instituendo_.
It was favourably received, both by the diplomatist for whose use it was
composed, and the public at large; but, on account of the great
extension of literature, since the time of Grotius, it is now little
read. Mentioning the Roman history, he shews that a knowledge of it is
better acquired by reading its Greek than by reading its Latin
historians; because foreigners give more attention to the public manners
and customs of a country than natives.
[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
All the works, which we have mentioned, were most favourably received in
every part of the United Provinces. It was now become evident that the
exertions for their independence were on the eve of being crowned with
complete success. All the European Powers had deserted Spain, so that
she was left to her own single and unaided strength, to maintain the
contest against the insurgent provinces. The glory, which they acquired
by their successful resistance to her, determined them to make choice of
an historian, who should transmit to future ages the signal exploits of
their memorable struggle. With this view, they appointed Grotius their
historiographer.
[Sidenote: The Poems of Grotius.]
It remains to mention the "_Poems of Grotius:_" throughout his life, he
sacrificed to the Muses. The _Prosopopoeia,_ in which he introduces the
City of Ostend addressing the world, when, in the third year of her
siege, the Marquis Spinola led the troops of Spain against her, was
greatly, admired. All the adjacent territory had been taken by the
Spaniards, so that nothing remained of it to the confederates, but the
precinct within the walls of the city; and even much of this had been
wrested from the besieged. All Europe had its eye fixed on the
operations of Spinola. It is therefore, with great propriety of
language, that Grotius makes Ostend thus address herself to the world,
in the following lines:--
"Area parva ducum, totus quam respicit orbis;
Celsior una malis, et quam damnare ruinae
Nunc quoque fata timent,--alieno in litore resto.
Tertius annus abit; toties mutavimus hostem:
Saevit hyems pelago, morbisque furentibus aestas;
Et minimum est quod fecit Iber,--crudelior armis
In nos orta lues,--nullum est sine funere funus.
Nec perimit mors una semel:--Fortuna quid haeres?
Qua mercede tenes mixtos in sanguine manes?
Quis tumulos moriens hos occupet hoste perempto?
Queritur,--et sterili tantum de pulvere pugna est."
"A small area of chiefs, whom the whole world contemplates;
alone loftier than my woes; I, whom the
Fates even yet, fear to condemn to ruin;--remain on a
foreign shore.
"The third year now passes away; thrice has my foe
been changed:
"The winter rages on the sea; the summer, by its furious
heats.
"The Spaniard has been my least enemy;--more cruel
than arms, a pestilence has risen among us; no funeral is
without another; the dying never perish by a single death.
"Fortune! why do'st thou hesitate? By what reward
do'st thou detain the manes mingled in blood?
"Who, dying, will, after the destruction of the enemy,
occupy these tombs?--This is enquired.--
The contest is only for sterile dust."
With the following poetical translation of these verses, the writer has
been favoured by Mr. Sotheby, the elegant translator of "Oberon."
Scant battle-field of Chiefs, thro' earth renown'd,
Opprest, I loftier tow'r;--and, now, while Fate
Dreads to destroy, in foreign soil I stand.
Thrice chang'd the year, thrice have we chang'd the Foe.
Fierce Winter chafes the Deep, the Summer burns
With fell disease: less fell th' Iberian sword.
Dire Pestilence spreads;--on funerals funerals swell:
Nor does one death at once extirpate all.
Why, Fortune! linger? why our souls detain
With blood immingled? Who, the Foe extinct,
Who, dying, shall these sepulchres possess,
And in this sterile dust the conflict close?
W.S.
March 28,1826.
[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
These verses produced a great sensation in the literary world: they were
ascribed by many to Scaliger, as the best Latin poet of the age; the
only person considered to be capable of writing them. The celebrated
Peyresck hinted this to that learned man: Scaliger answered, that "he
was too old not to be the aversion of the virgins of Helicon," and
announced that the verses were written by Grotius. They were translated
into French by Du Vair, afterwards the keeper of the seals; by Rapin,
grand-provost of the Constabulary of France; by Stephen Pasquier, and by
Malherbes: Casaubon translated them into Greek.[013]
[Sidenote: The Poems of Grotius.]
Three Generals had successively been entrusted with the siege of Ostend;
nine commanders had successively been entrusted with its defence: the
siege had cost the besiegers and besieged 100,000 lives: all the
historians of the times agree, that few important consequences were
derived to either side by the success of the Spaniards. The Archduke and
Infanta, had the curiosity to view the city, after it was taken. They
found in it nothing but heaps of ruins: little that shewed the former
state of the town; its ditches were filled, its fortifications
overthrown, its buildings, and the works of attack and defence, were
levelled with the ground. Spinola led them to the spots in which the
most remarkable events had taken place; and, finally to that, in which
the forces of the besieged had made their last stand; had, for want of
space, found themselves unable to raise military works, and had, on that
account, found themselves forced to surrender. The Archduke and the
Infanta were moved to tears at the melancholy sight; and declared that
such a victory was not worth its cost.
[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
The success of the siege of Ostend covered Spinola with glory: his reply
to a person, who asked him,--who, in his opinion was the greatest
general of the age,--is generally known: "Prince Maurice," he said, "is
the second."[014]
The principal poetical performances of Grotius in the collection we have
mentioned, are--_three tragedies_, "Adam in Banishment," "Christ
Suffering," and "Sophomphaneos," which signifies in the language of
Egypt, "the Saviour of the world:" it exhibits the story of Joseph.
Sandys translated it into English verse, and dedicated his translation
to Charles I. From the second of these tragedies, Lauder transcribed
many of the verses, upon which he founded the charge of plagiarism
against Milton.
An eminent rank among modern Latin poets, has always been assigned to
Grotius: his diction is always classical, his sentiments just. But those
who are accustomed to the _wood notes_ of the Bard of Avon, will not
admire the scenic compositions, however elegant or mellifluous, of the
Batavian Bard.
CHAPTER IV.
HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THEIR DECLARATION OF
INDEPENDENCE, TILL THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY.
The present chapter will lead our readers to the public life of Grotius:
in a former page we succinctly mentioned the principal events in the
history of the United Provinces, from their first insurrection against
Philip II. till their declaration of independence. On that event, they
continued Prince William of Orange in the Stadtholderate: he was
entitled to it by his civil and military talents. Application, activity,
liberality, eloquence, intrepidity, enterprise and discretion, were
united in him in an extraordinary degree: he could accommodate himself
to all persons and occurrences, accelerate or retard events, as best
served the interests of his cause, or his own designs. In the rare
talent of governing popular assemblies, and procuring the co-operation
of persons of opposite views, he has had few equals. He wanted no
quality, which a chief of a party should possess, either to insure the
success of the public object, or to further his private aims.
[Sidenote: CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.]
These had, for some time, been suspected: it was generally observed,
that he affected the exercise of sovereign authority; that he
endeavoured to attach the military to his own person; that he always
sought to have the acts of the States issued in his own name; that, on
many occasions, he avoided consulting the States, or doing any thing
which could be considered an explicit recognition of their supremacy;
and that in several instances, in which the constitution required the
co-operation of the States, he acted independently of them. This gave
rise to a party, which was jealous of his power, and on many occasions
thwarted, what they thought the projects of his private ambition. From
their attachment to the constitution, they were termed the republican
party: Barneveldt, the Grand-Pensionary of the States General, was their
leader.
[Sidenote: Assassination of William Prince of Orange.]
Whatever were the projects of the prince, there appeared to be great
probability of their ultimate success. In 1684, he had gained so for,
that the States of Holland, Zealand and Frizeland, had come to a
resolution to confer upon him the sovereignty of their states, under the
title of Count. All the conditions were settled: on one hand, the rights
of the prince, on the other, the rights of the people, were defined and
recognised; a contravention of them by any of the people was declared
to be treason; the infringement of them by the prince, was declared to
be a forfeiture of his sovereignty. Thus the prince seemed to be on the
eve of receiving the fruit of all his exertions. But, as we have already
mentioned, he was assassinated by Balthazar Gerard, a fanatic Spaniard.
The last words of the prince were, "Lord! have mercy on my soul! have
pity on my poor country!"
In 1585, Prince Maurice, the second son of William, was, chiefly by the
influence of Barneveldt, proclaimed Stadtholder by the States General.
They were not less jealous of his views, than they had been of his
father's; but the misconduct of the Earl of Leicester had made it
necessary for them to throw themselves into the prince's arms. The
weakness of Spain, and the troubles in France, now permitted the United
Provinces to enjoy some repose. They availed themselves of it, to settle
the constitution: the towns were repaired, the fortifications completed,
Universities were founded or revived at Utrecht, Leyden and Franker; and
the arts of peace began to be cultivated.
[Sidenote: CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.]
Maurice inherited all the civil talents of his father; he had greater
military skill, and at least equal ambition. The art of war seems to
consist, at the present time, in directing immense masses of men, by
skilful evolutions and positions, to the destruction of the force
opposed. In the wars of the Netherlands, it was principally shewn by
surprising strong-holds, besieging towns, regular assaults, advantageous
encampments, and wasting the army of the enemy by skilful marches. The
camp of Maurice became a school, in which the nobility and gentry of the
empire, France, and England, entered as volunteers, to learn the art of
war. His taking of the city of Breda, raised his reputation to the
highest: from this time, the war, which, on the part of the United
Provinces, had till then, been a defensive war, became offensive, and
their arms were attended with almost uninterrupted success: they equally
triumphed on Sea.
In 1698, the war between Spain and France was terminated. Philip II.
soon afterwards died: he was succeeded by Philip III. a weak monarch.
Then, began the naval glory of the United Provinces; their attacks on
the West Indian and East Indian colonies of the Spaniards. In 1600,
prince Maurice gained a decisive victory at Nieuport near Ostend: it was
followed by other important successes. In 1607, Admiral Heemskirk
obtained a complete victory over the Spanish fleet, though protected by
the batteries of Cadiz, and seized their ships and treasures.
[Sidenote: Armistice between Spain and the United Provinces.]
The war between Spain and the United Provinces had now continued forty
years: the resources of Spain were so exhausted, that she herself was
forced to solicit an armistice. Prince Maurice objected to it, as the
continuance of the war was essential to the furtherance of his own
ambitious views. On this account, the truce was promoted by Barneveldt
and the republican party. They justly thought that the aggrandizement of
the house of Orange would be the extinction of the liberties of their
country, so that the result of the war would only be, that the United
Provinces would change their masters. After a long negotiation, an
armistice of twelve years was agreed upon in 1609, and England and
France guaranteed the execution of the treaty.
CHAPTER V.
THE FEUDS IN THE UNITED PROVINCES BETWEEN THE DISCIPLES OF CALVIN AND
THE DISCIPLES OF ARMINIUS, UNTIL THE SYNOD AT DORT.
1610-1617.
It has generally happened, when a people have risen against their
sovereign, that their first successes have been followed by divisions
among themselves; and that these have endangered, and sometimes even
ruined, their cause. Such a division took place, in a remarkable manner,
in the conflict between the United Provinces and Spain. No sooner did
the arms of the former begin to prosper, and promise ultimate success,
than the ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY burst forth. At first, it was merely a
religious dispute; but it soon mixed itself in the national politics;
split the people into two very hostile parties, and produced contentions
between them, which more than once brought their cause to the brink of
destruction. Grotius was unfortunately involved in them. This part of
the history now claims our attention.
[Sidenote: Calvinism.]
The reformed church, in the largest import of the word, comprises all
the religious communities, which have separated themselves from the
church of Rome. In this sense, the words are often used by English
writers; but, having been adopted by the French Calvinists to describe
_their_ church, these words are most commonly used, on the continent, as
a general appellation of all the churches who profess the doctrines of
Calvin.
[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
About the year 1541, the church of Geneva was placed by the magistrates
of that city, under the direction of Calvin. He immediately conceived
one of the boldest projects, that ever entered into the mind of an
obscure individual. He undertook to new model the religious creed of the
reformed church; to give it strength and consistency, and to render the
church of Geneva the mother and mistress of all Protestant churches. His
learning, eloquence, and talents for business, soon attracted general
notice; and, while the fervour of his zeal, the austerity of his
manners, and the devotional cast of his writings, attracted the
multitude, the elegance of his compositions, and his insinuating style,
equally captivated the gentleman and the scholar. By degrees, his fame
reached every part of Europe. Having prevailed upon the senate of Geneva
to found an academy, and place it under his superintendence, and having
filled it with men eminent throughout Europe for their learning and
talent, it became the favourite resort of all persons, who leaned to the
new principles, and sought religious or literary instruction. From
Germany, France, Italy, England and Scotland, numbers crowded to the new
academy, and returned from it to their native countries, saturated with
the doctrine of Geneva, and burning with zeal to propagate its creed.
Calvin's peculiar doctrine on Predestination and Free-will soon
attracted attention, and gave rise to _more than a civil war_[015] of
controversy,[016]
We feel that we are free: if we were not free, conscience could not
exist; for, if a man had not freedom of action, conscience could not
intimate to him either its approbation or its disapprobation of his
actions.
But--_how_ are we free? _How_ is free-will reconcileable, either with
the influence of motive upon will? or with the order of the universe,
prescribed by the Deity? or, with his prescience? For that, which his
infinite mind prescribes or foresees, must be fixed.
[Sidenote: Disputes on the Free-will of Man.]
This question soon engaged the attention of the Greek Philosophers: some
advocated the free-will of man; others denied it, and ascribed his
actions to Fate or Destiny; a being or energy, which they were never
able to define or describe. Among the Jews, the Sadducees embraced the
former opinion; the Pharisees, the latter. Among the Mahometans, a like
division took place between the followers of Omar, and those of Ali.
Unfortunately, the Christians engaged in these ungrateful speculations:
their disputes chiefly turned upon the effect, which motive, suggested
by grace, or the divine favour, has upon will. Does it necessitate?
then, there is no free-will,--no merit,--no demerit. Does it not
necessitate? then, in the choice of good, man acts by his own power, and
thus achieves a good of which God is not the author.
[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
The dispute was brought to an issue by _Pelagius_ and his disciples.
They held, that man acts independently of divine grace, both in the
choice and execution of good. This independence was denied by _St.
Augustin_, he asserted, that man co-operates with grace, yet, that grace
begins, advances and brings to perfection every thing in man, which can
be justly called good. _St. Thomas of Aquin_ new-modelled the system of
St. Augustin, and used new terms in describing it: his subtile
distinctions, in the opinion of many, considerably improved it.
_Calvin_ aggravated the doctrine of St. Augustin. He maintained,[017]
that the everlasting condition of mankind in the future world, was
determined from all eternity, by the _unchangeable order_ of the Deity;
and that this _absolute_ determination of his will was the only source
of _happiness or misery_ to individuals. Thus Calvin maintained, without
any qualification, that God, from all eternity has doomed one part of
mankind to everlasting happiness, the other to everlasting misery; and,
was led to make this distinction, without regard to the merit or demerit
of the object, and by no other reason or motive than his own pleasure.
_Luther_,[018] in opposition to Calvin, maintained, that the _divine
decrees_ respecting the salvation or misery of men, are founded upon a
previous knowledge of their sentiments and characters; or, in other
words, that God, foreseeing from all eternity the faith and virtue of
some, and the incredulity or wickedness of others, has reserved eternal
happiness for the former, and eternal misery for the latter.
[Sidenote: Disputes on the Free-will of Man.]
These, and other doctrinal differences, separated the Protestants into
the adherents to the creed of Luther, and the adherents to the creed of
Calvin. The United Provinces were among the latter: the creed of Calvin
was, as we have mentioned, one of the fundamental laws of the Union.
The Calvinistic doctrine, that God, from all eternity, consigns one
portion of mankind, without any fault on their side, to everlasting
torments, shocks our feelings, and is totally repugnant to the notions
entertained by us of the goodness and justice of the Deity: it is not
therefore surprising that it should be called in question. From the
first, several objected to it; but it was not till the successes of the
United Provinces appeared to afford them a near prospect of triumph,
that the opposers of Calvin's doctrine formed themselves into a party,
and occasioned a public sensation.
[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
The celebrated JAMES ARMINIUS[019] was at their head. He was born in
1560, at Oudewater in Holland, of respectable parents. He lost his
father in his infancy, and was indebted, for the first rudiments of his
education, to a clergyman, who had imbibed some opinions of the reformed
religion. Under his tuition, Arminius studied, during some time, at
Utrecht. After the clergyman's decease, Rudolphus Snellius, a clergyman
of eminence, took Arminius under his protection, and, in 1575, placed
him at Marpurgh. There, he heard of the taking of Oudewater by the
Spaniards, and their massacre of its inhabitants. His mother, sister,
and two brothers were among the victims. On the first intelligence of
the calamity he repaired to Oudewater, in hopes that the account of it
might have been exaggerated. Finding it true, he retired to Leyden:
there, his severe application to study, and the regularity of his
morals, gained him universal esteem. In 1563, he was sent to Geneva, at
the expense of the magistrates of Amsterdam, to perfect his studies
under the care of Beza. Unfortunately, by adopting the philosophical
principles, of _Ramus_, and unguardedly professing them, he displeased
some leading men of the university, and was obliged to leave it: he then
went to Basle. There, his reputation having preceded him, he was
received with great kindness: the faculty of divinity offered him a
doctor's degree; but a general wish for his return being expressed at
Geneva, he declined the honour, and returned to that city. He then
visited Italy, and, during some months, studied under Zabarella, a
famous philosopher, who then lectured at Padua. In 1588, Arminius was
ordained minister at Amsterdam.
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