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The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660 1783 written by Alfred Thayer Mahan

A >> Alfred Thayer Mahan >> The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660 1783



THE INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON HISTORY, 1660-1783

by Alfred Thayer Mahan


PREFACE


The definite object proposed in this work is an examination of the
general history of Europe and America with particular reference to the
effect of sea power upon the course of that history. Historians
generally have been unfamiliar with the conditions of the sea, having
as to it neither special interest nor special knowledge; and the
profound determining influence of maritime strength upon great issues
has consequently been overlooked. This is even more true of particular
occasions than of the general tendency of sea power. It is easy to say
in a general way, that the use and control of the sea is and has been
a great factor in the history of the world; it is more troublesome to
seek out and show its exact bearing at a particular juncture. Yet,
unless this be done, the acknowledgment of general importance remains
vague and unsubstantial; not resting, as it should, upon a collection
of special instances in which the precise effect has been made clear,
by an analysis of the conditions at the given moments.

A curious exemplification of this tendency to slight the bearing of
maritime power upon events may be drawn from two writers of that
English nation which more than any other has owed its greatness to the
sea. "Twice," says Arnold in his History of Rome, "has there been
witnessed the struggle of the highest individual genius against the
resources and institutions of a great nation, and in both cases the
nation was victorious. For seventeen years Hannibal strove against
Rome, for sixteen years Napoleon strove against England; the efforts
of the first ended in Zama, those of the second in Waterloo." Sir
Edward Creasy, quoting this, adds: "One point, however, of the
similitude between the two wars has scarcely been adequately dwelt on;
that is, the remarkable parallel between the Roman general who finally
defeated the great Carthaginian, and the English general who gave the
last deadly overthrow to the French emperor. Scipio and Wellington
both held for many years commands of high importance, but distant from
the main theatres of warfare. The same country was the scene of the
principal military career of each. It was in Spain that Scipio, like
Wellington, successively encountered and overthrew nearly all the
subordinate generals of the enemy before being opposed to the chief
champion and conqueror himself. Both Scipio and Wellington restored
their countrymen's confidence in arms when shaken by a series of
reverses, and each of them closed a long and perilous war by a
complete and overwhelming defeat of the chosen leader and the chosen
veterans of the foe."

Neither of these Englishmen mentions the yet more striking
coincidence, that in both cases the mastery of the sea rested with the
victor. The Roman control of the water forced Hannibal to that long,
perilous march through Gaul in which more than half his veteran troops
wasted away; it enabled the elder Scipio, while sending his army from
the Rhone on to Spain, to intercept Hannibal's communications, to
return in person and face the invader at the Trebia. Throughout the
war the legions passed by water, unmolested and un-

wearied, between Spain, which was Hannibal's base, and Italy, while
the issue of the decisive battle of the Metaurus, hinging as it did
upon the interior position of the Roman armies with reference to the
forces of Hasdrubal and Hannibal, was ultimately due to the fact that
the younger brother could not bring his succoring reinforcements by
sea, but only by the land route through Gaul. Hence at the critical
moment the two Carthaginian armies were separated by the length of
Italy, and one was destroyed by the combined action of the Roman
generals.

On the other hand, naval historians have troubled themselves little
about the connection between general history and their own particular
topic, limiting themselves generally to the duty of simple chroniclers
of naval occurrences. This is less true of the French than of the
English; the genius and training of the former people leading them to
more careful inquiry into the causes of particular results and the
mutual relation of events.

There is not, however, within the knowledge of the author any work
that professes the particular object here sought; namely, an estimate
of the effect of sea power upon the course of history and the
prosperity of nations. As other histories deal with the wars,
politics, social and economical conditions of countries, touching upon
maritime matters only incidentally and generally unsympathetically, so
the present work aims at putting maritime interests in the foreground,
without divorcing them, however, from their surroundings of cause and
effect in general history, but seeking to show how they modified the
latter, and were modified by them.

The period embraced is from 1660, when the sailing ship era, with its
distinctive features, had fairly begun, to 1783, the end of the
American Revolution. While the thread of general history upon which
the successive maritime events is strung is intentionally slight, the
effort has been to present a clear as well as accurate outline.
Writing as a naval officer in full sympathy with his profession, the
author has not hesitated to digress freely on questions of naval
policy, strategy, and tactics; but as technical language has been
avoided, it is hoped that these matters, simply presented, will be
found of interest to the unprofessional reader.

A. T. MAHAN
DECEMBER, 1889.





CONTENTS


INTRODUCTORY

History of Sea Power one of contest between nations, therefore largely
military
Permanence of the teachings of history
Unsettled condition of modern naval opinion
Contrasts between historical classes of war-ships
Essential distinction between weather and lee gage
Analogous to other offensive and defensive positions
Consequent effect upon naval policy
Lessons of history apply especially to strategy
Less obviously to tactics, but still applicable
Naval strategic combinations surer now than formerly
Wide scope of naval strategy


CHAPTER I.

DISCUSSION OF THE ELEMENTS OF SEA POWER.
The sea a great common
Advantages of water-carriage over that by land
Navies exist for the protection of commerce
Dependence of commerce upon secure seaports
Development of colonies and colonial posts
Links in the chain of Sea Power: production, shipping, colonies
General conditions affecting Sea Power:
I. Geographical position
II. Physical conformation
III. Extent of territory
IV. Number of population
V. National character
VI. Character and policy of governments
England
Holland
France
Influence of colonies on Sea Power
The United States:
Its weakness in Sea Power
Its chief interest in internal development
Danger from blockades
Dependence of the navy upon the shipping interest
Conclusion of the discussion of the elements of Sea Power
Purpose of the historical narrative


CHAPTER II.

STATE OF EUROPE IN 1660. SECOND ANGLO-DUTCH WAR, 1665-1667. SEA BATTLES OF
LOWESTOFT AND OF THE FOUR DAYS

Accession of Charles II. and Louis XIV
Followed shortly by general wars
French policy formulated by Henry IV. and Richelieu
Condition of France in 1660
Condition of Spain
Condition of the Dutch United Provinces
Their commerce and colonies
Character of their government
Parties in the State
Condition of England in 1660
Characteristics of French, English, and Dutch ships
Conditions of other European States
Louis XIV. The leading personality in Europe
His policy
Colbert's administrative acts
Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665
Battle of Lowestoft, 1665
Fire-ships, compared with torpedo-cruisers
The group formation
The order of battle for sailing-ships
The Four Days' Battle, 1666
Military merits of the opposing fleets
Soldiers commanding fleets, discussion
Ruyter in the Thames, 1667
Peace of Breda, 1667
Military value of commerce-destroying


CHAPTER III.

WAR OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN ALLIANCE AGAINST THE UNITED PROVINCES, 1672--
1674.--FINALLY, OF FRANCE AGAINST COMBINED EUROPE, 1674-1678.--SEA BATTLES
OF SOLEBAY, THE TEXEL, AND STROMBOLI.

Aggressions of Louis XIV. on Spanish Netherlands
Policy of the United Provinces
Triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden
Anger of Louis XIV
Leibnitz proposes to Louis to seize Egypt
His memorial
Bargaining between Louis XIV. and Charles II.
The two kings declare war against the United Provinces
Military character of this war
Naval strategy of the Dutch
Tactical combinations of De Ruyter
Inefficiency of Dutch naval administration
Battle of Solebay, 1672
Tactical comments
Effect of the battle on the course of the war
Land campaign of the French in Holland
Murder of John De Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland
Accession to power of William of Orange
Uneasiness among European States
Naval battles off Schoneveldt, 1673
Naval battle of the Texel, 1673
Effect upon the general war
Equivocal action of the French fleet
General ineffectiveness of maritime coalitions
Military character of De Ruyter
Coalition against France
Peace between England and the United Provinces
Sicilian revolt against Spain
Battle of Stromboli, 1676
Illustration of Clerk's naval tactics
De Ruyter killed off Agosta
England becomes hostile to France
Sufferings of the United Provinces
Peace of Nimeguen, 1678
Effects of the war on France and Holland
Notice of Comte D'Estrees



CHAPTER IV.

ENGLISH REVOLUTION. WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF AUGSBURG, 1688-1697.
SEA BATTLES OF BEACHY HEAD AND LA HOUGUE.

Aggressive policy of Louis XIV
State of French, English, and Dutch navies
Accession of James II
Formation of the League of Augsburg
Louis declares war against the Emperor of Germany
Revolution in England
Louis declares war against the United Provinces
William and Mary crowned
James II. lands in Ireland
Misdirection of French naval forces
William HI. lands in Ireland
Naval battle of Beachy Head, 1690
Tourville's military character
Battle of the Boyne, 1690
End of the struggle in Ireland
Naval battle of La Hougue, 1692
Destruction of French ships
Influence of Sea Power in this war
Attack and defence of commerce
Peculiar characteristics of French privateering
Peace of Ryswick, 1697
Exhaustion of France: its causes



CHAPTER V.

WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION, 1702-1713. SEA BATTLE OF MALAGA.

Failure of the Spanish line of the House of Austria
King of Spain wills the succession to the Duke of Anjou
Death of the King of Spain
Louis XIV. accepts the bequests
He seizes towns in Spanish Netherlands
Offensive alliance between England, Holland, and Austria
Declarations of war
The allies proclaim Carlos III. King of Spain
Affair of the Vigo galleons
Portugal joins the allies
Character of the naval warfare
Capture of Gibraltar by the English
Naval battle of Malaga, 1704
Decay of the French navy
Progress of the land war
Allies seize Sardinia and Minorca
Disgrace of Marlborough
England offers terms of peace
Peace of Utrecht, 1713
Terms of the peace
Results of the war to the different belligerents
Commanding position of Great Britain
Sea Power dependent upon both commerce and naval strength
Peculiar position of France as regards Sea Power
Depressed condition of France
Commercial prosperity of England
Ineffectiveness of commerce-destroying
Duguay-Trouin's expedition against Rio de Janeiro, 1711
War between Russia and Sweden


CHAPTER VI.

THE REGENCY IN FRANCE. ALBERONI IN SPAIN. POLICIES OF WALPOLE AND FLEURI. WAR
OF THE POLISH SUCCESSION. ENGLISH CONTRABAND TRADE IN SPANISH AMERICA. GREAT
BRITAIN DECLARES WAR AGAINST SPAIN, 1715-1739.

Death of Queen Anne and Louis XIV
Accession of George I
Regency of Philip of Orleans
Administration of Alberoni in Spain
Spaniards invade Sardinia
Alliance of Austria, England, Holland, and France
Spaniards invade Sicily
Destruction of Spanish navy off Cape Passaro, 1718
Failure and dismissal of Alberoni
Spain accepts terms
Great Britain interferes in the Baltic
Death of Philip of Orleans
Administration of Fleuri in France
Growth of French commerce
France in the East Indies
Troubles between England and Spain
English contraband trade in Spanish America
Illegal search of English ships
Walpole's struggles to preserve peace
War of the Polish Succession
Creation of the Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Bourbon family compact
France acquires Bar and Lorraine
England declares war against Spain
Morality of the English action toward Spain
Decay of the French navy
Death of Walpole and of Fleuri


CHAPTER VII

WAR BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND SPAIN, 1739. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION,
1740. FRANCE JOINS SPAIN AGAINST GREAT BRITAIN, 1744. SEA BATTLES OF
MATTHEWS, ANSON, AND HAWKE. PEACE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 1748.

Characteristics of the wars from 1739 to 1783
Neglect of the navy by French government
Colonial possessions of the French, English, and Spaniards
Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in India
Condition of the contending navies
Expeditions of Vernon and Anson
Outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession
England allies herself to Austria
Naval affairs in the Mediterranean
Influence of Sea Power on the war
Naval battle off Toulon, 1744
Causes of English failure
Courts-martial following the action
Inefficient action of English navy
Capture of Louisburg by New England colonists, 1745
Causes which concurred to neutralize England's Sea Power
France overruns Belgium and invades Holland
Naval actions of Anson and Hawke
Brilliant defence of Commodore l'Etenduere
Projects of Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in the East Indies
Influence of Sea Power in Indian affairs
La Bourdonnais reduces Madras
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748
Madras exchanged for Louisburg
Results of the war
Effect of Sea Power on the issue


CHAPTER VIII.

SEVEN YEARS' WAR, 1756-1763. ENGLAND'S OVERWHELMING POWER AND CONQUESTS
ON THE SEAS, IN NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE, AND EAST AND WEST INDIES. SEA
BATTLES: BYNG OFF MINORCA; HAWKE AND CONFLANS; POCOCK AND D'ACHE
IN EAST INDIES.

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle leaves many questions unsettled
Dupleix pursues his aggressive policy
He is recalled from India
His policy abandoned by the French
Agitation in North America
Braddock's expedition, 1755
Seizure of French ships by the English, while at peace
French expedition against Port Mahon, 1756
Byng sails to relieve the place
Byng's action off Port Mahon, 1756
Characteristics of the French naval policy
Byng returns to Gibraltar
He is relieved, tried by court-martial, and shot
Formal declarations of war by England and France
England's appreciation of the maritime character of the war
France is drawn into a continental struggle
The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) begins
Pitt becomes Prime Minister of England
Operations in North America
Fall of Louisburg, 1758
Fall of Quebec, 1759, and of Montreal, 1760
Influence of Sea Power on the continental war
English plans for the general naval operations
Choiseul becomes Minister in France
He plans an invasion of England
Sailing of the Toulon fleet, 1759
Its disastrous encounter with Boscawen
Consequent frustration of the invasion of England
Project to invade Scotland
Sailing of the Brest fleet
Hawke falls in with it and disperses it, 1759
Accession of Charles III. To Spanish throne
Death of George II
Clive in India
Battle of Plassey, 1757
Decisive influence of Sea Power upon the issues in India
Naval actions between Pocock and D'Ache', 1758, 1759
Destitute condition of French naval stations in India
The French fleet abandons the struggle
Final fall of the French power in India
Ruined condition of the French navy
Alliance between France and Spain
England declares war against Spain
Rapid conquest of French and Spanish colonies
French and Spaniards invade Portugal
The invasion repelled by England
Severe reverses of the Spaniards in all quarters
Spain sues for peace
Losses of British mercantile shipping
Increase of British commerce
Commanding position of Great Britain
Relations of England and Portugal
Terms of the Treaty of Paris
Opposition to the treaty in Great Britain
Results of the maritime war
Results of the continental war
Influence of Sea Power in countries politically unstable
Interest of the United States in the Central American Isthmus
Effects of the Seven Years' War on the later history of Great Britain
Subsequent acquisitions of Great Britain
British success due to maritime superiority
Mutual dependence of seaports and fleets


CHAPTER IX.

COURSE OF EVENTS FROM THE PEACE OF PARIS TO 1778. MARITIME WAR CONSEQUENT UPON
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. BATTLE OFF USHANT.

French discontent with the Treaty of Paris
Revival of the French navy
Discipline among French naval officers of the time
Choiseul's foreign policy
Domestic troubles in Great Britain
Controversies with the North American colonies
Genoa cedes Corsica to France
Dispute between England and Spain about the Falkland Islands
Choiseul dismissed
Death of Louis XV
Naval policy of Louis XVI
Characteristics of the maritime war of 1778
Instructions of Louis XVI. To the French admirals
Strength of English navy
Characteristics of the military situation in America
The line of the Hudson
Burgoyne's expedition from Canada
Howe carries his army from New York to the Chesapeake
Surrender of Burgoyne, 1777
American privateering
Clandestine support of the Americans by France
Treaty between France and the Americans
Vital importance of the French fleet to the Americans
The military situation in the different quarters of the globe
Breach between France and England
Sailing of the British and French fleets
Battle of Ushant, 1778
Position of a naval commander-in-chief in battle


CHAPTER X.

MARITIME WAR IN NORTH AMERICA AND WEST INDIES, 1778-1781. ITS INFLUENCE UPON
THE COURSE OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. FLEET ACTIONS OFF GRENADA. DOMINICA,
AND CHESAPEAKE BAY.

D'Estaing sails from Toulon for Delaware Bay, 1778
British ordered to evacuate Philadelphia
Rapidity of Lord Howe's movements
D'Estaing arrives too late
Follows Howe to New York
Fails to attack there and sails for Newport
Howe follows him there
Both fleets dispersed by a storm
D'Estaing takes his fleet to Boston
Howe's activity foils D'Estaing at all points
D'Estaing sails for the West Indies
The English seize Sta. Lucia
Ineffectual attempts of D'Estaing to dislodge them
D'Estaing captures Grenada
Naval battle of Grenada, 1779; English ships crippled
D'Estaing fails to improve his advantages
Reasons for his neglect
French naval policy
English operations in the Southern States
D'Estaing takes his fleet to Savannah
His fruitless assault on Savannah
D'Estaing returns to France
Fall of Charleston
De Guichen takes command in the West Indies
Rodney arrives to command English fleet
His military character
First action between Rodney and De Guichen, 1780
Breaking the line
Subsequent movements of Rodney and De Guichen
Rodney divides his fleet
Goes in person to New York
De Guichen returns to France
Arrival of French forces in Newport
Rodney returns to the West Indies
War between England and Holland
Disasters to the United States in 1780
De Grasse sails from Brest for the West Indies, 1781
Engagement with English fleet off Martinique.
Cornwallis overruns the Southern States
He retires upon Wilmington, N. C., and thence to Virginia
Arnold on the James River
The French fleet leaves Newport to intercept Arnold
Meets the English fleet off the Chesapeake, 1781
French fleet returns to Newport
Cornwallis occupies Yorktown
De Grasse sails from Hayti for the Chesapeake
Action with the British fleet, 1781
Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781
Criticism of the British naval operations
Energy and address shown by De Grasse
Difficulties of Great Britain's position in the war of 1778.
The military policy best fitted to cope with them
Position of the French squadron in Newport, R. I., 1780.
Great Britain's defensive position and inferior numbers.
Consequent necessity for a vigorous initiative
Washington's opinions as to the influence of Sea Power on the
American contest


CHAPTER XI.

MARITIME WAR IN EUROPE, 1779-1782.

Objectives of the allied operations in Europe
Spain declares war against England
Allied fleets enter the English Channel, 1779
Abortive issue of the cruise
Rodney sails with supplies for Gibraltar
Defeats the Spanish squadron of Langara and relieves the place
The allies capture a great British convoy
The armed neutrality of the Baltic powers, 1780
England declares war against Holland
Gibraltar is revictualled by Admiral Derby
The allied fleets again in the Channel, 1781
They retire without effecting any damage to England
Destruction of a French convoy for the West Indies
Fall of Port Mahon, 1782
The allied fleets assemble at Algesiras
Grand attack of the allies on Gibraltar, which fails, 1782
Lord Howe succeeds in revictualling Gibraltar
Action between his fleet and that of the allies
Conduct of the war of 1778 by the English government
Influence of Sea Power
Proper use of the naval force


CHAPTER XII.

EVENTS IN THE EAST INDIES, 1778-1781. SUFFREN SAILS FROM BREST FOR INDIA,
1781. HIS BRILLIANT NAVAL CAMPAIGN IN THE INDIAN SEAS, 1782, 1783.

Neglect of India by the French government
England at war with Mysore and with the Mahrattas
Arrival of the French squadron under Comte d'Orves
It effects nothing and returns to the Isle of France
Suffren sails from Brest with five ships-of-the-line, 1781
Attacks an English squadron in the Cape Verde Islands, 1781
Conduct and results of this attack
Distinguishing merits of Suffren as a naval leader
Suffren saves the Cape Colony from the English
He reaches the Isle of France
Succeeds to the chief command of the French fleet
Meets the British squadron under Hughes at Madras
Analysis of the naval strategic situation in India
The first battle between Suffren and Hughes, Feb. 17, 1782
Suffren's views of the naval situation in India
Tactical oversights made by Suffren
Inadequate support received by him from his captains
Suffren goes to Pondicherry, Hughes to Trincomalee
The second battle between Suffren and Hughes, April 12, 1782
Suffren's tactics in the action
Relative injuries received by the opposing fleets
Contemporaneous English criticisms upon Hughes's conduct
Destitute condition of Suffren's fleet
His activity and success in supplying wants
He communicates with Hyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore
Firmness and insight shown by Suffren
His refusal to obey orders from home to leave the Indian Coast
The third battle between Suffren and Hughes, July 6, 1782
Qualities shown by Hughes
Stubborn fighting by the British admiral and captains
Suffren deprives three captains of their commands
Dilatory conduct of Admiral Hughes
Suffren attacks and takes Trincomalee
Strategic importance of this success
Comparative condition of the two fleets in material for repairs
The English government despatches powerful reinforcements
The French court fails to support Suffren
The fourth battle between Suffren and Hughes, Sept. 3, 1782
Mismanagement and injuries of the French
Contrast between the captains in the opposing fleets
Two ships of Suffren's fleet grounded and lost
Arrival of British reinforcements under Admiral Bickerton
Approach of bad-weather season; Hughes goes to Bombay
Military situation of French and English in India
Delays of the French reinforcements under Bussy
Suffren takes his fleet to Achem, in Sumatra
He returns to the Indian coast
Arrival of Bussy
Decline of the French power on shore
The English besiege Bussy in Cuddalore by land and sea
Suffren relieves the place
The fifth battle between Suffren and Hughes, June 20, 1783
Decisive character of Suffren's action
News of the peace received at Madras
Suffren sails for France
His flattering reception everywhere
His distinguishing military qualities
His later career and death



CHAPTER XIII

EVENTS IN THE WEST INDIES AFTER THE SURRENDER OF YORKTOWN. ENCOUNTERS OF DE
GRASSE WITH HOOD. THE SEA BATTLE OF THE SAINTS. 1781-1782.

Maritime struggle transferred from the continent to West Indies
De Grasse sails for the islands
French expedition against the island of St. Christopher, January, 1782
Hood attempts to relieve the garrison
Manoeuvres of the two fleets
Action between De Grasse and Hood
Hood seizes the anchorage left by De Grasse
De Grasse attacks Hood at his anchorage
Hood maintains his position
Surrender of the garrison and island
Merits of Hood's action
Criticism upon De Grasse's conduct
Rodney arrives in West Indies from England
Junction of Rodney and Hood at Antigua
De Grasse returns to Martinique
Allied plans to capture Jamaica
Rodney takes his station at Sta. Lucia
The French fleet sails and is pursued by Rodney
Action of April 9, 1782
Criticism upon the action
The chase continued; accidents to French ships
The naval battle of the Saints, April 12, 1782
Rodney breaks the French line
Capture of the French commander-in-chief and five ships-of-the-line
Details of the action
Analysis of the effects of Rodney's manoeuvre
Tactical bearing of improvements in naval equipment
Lessons of this short naval campaign
Rodney's failure to pursue the French fleet
Examination of his reasons and of the actual conditions
Probable effect of this failure upon the conditions of peace
Rodney's opinions upon the battle of April 12
Successes achieved by Rodney during his command
He is recalled by a new ministry
Exaggerated view of the effects of this battle upon the war
Subsequent career of De Grasse
Court-martial ordered upon the officers of the French fleet
Findings of the court
De Grasse appeals against the finding
He is severely rebuked by the king
Deaths of De Grasse, Rodney, and Hood